THE NATURE OF WARFARE Valerie Wheeler [Nammour], 1974. Drums and Guns: A Cross-Cultural Study of the Nature of War. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Oregon. STDS40.DAT Vars. 891 - 916 The author's comments on reliability and validity are cited after each code, where relevant. References cited: Naroll, Raoul. 1966. Does military deterrence deter? Trans-Action 3(2): 14-20. Otterbein, Keith F. 1970. The Evolution of War: A Cross-cultural study. HRAF Press. 891. FREQUENCY OF INTERNAL WAR Otterbein's (1970: 3, 84, 143) definition of internal war excludes feuding: warfare between political communities within the cultural unit, i.e., continguous political communities that are culturally similar. p. 3: "Warfare is defined as armed combat between political communities. Armed combat, which is fighting with weapons, is performed by military organizations. When political communities within the same cultural unit engage in warfare, this is considered to be internal war." p. 143: "If there is more than one military organization within a political community, and these ... engage in armed combat, this is considered feuding or civil war, depending on the scope of the conflict." 26 . = Missing Data 17 1 = Continual 54 2 = Frequent 89 3 = Infrequent 892. FREQUENCY OF EXTERNAL WAR - ATTACKING [Follows Otterbein 1970: 84, 143-144] 29 . = Missing Data 31 1 = Continual 61 2 = Frequent 65 3 = Infrequent 893. FREQUENCY OF EXTERNAL WAR - BEING ATTACKED [Follows Otterbein 1970: 84, 143-144] 33 . = Missing Data 26 1 = Continual 67 2 = Frequent 60 3 = Infrequent 894. FORM OF MILITARY MOBILIZATION [Adapted from Otterbein 1970: 144] 26 . = Missing Data 60 1 = Age-grades, military societies, standing armies 86 2 = None of above: but men organized as friends, family, lineage, clan 14 3 = Absence of military organization altogether 895. DECISION TO ENGAGE IN WAR [Follows Otterbein 1970: 28-29, 144] 49 . = Missing Data 102 1 = Taken by official or council of the political community 35 2 = Anyone 896. COMMENCEMENT OF WAR [Follows Otterbein 1970: 32, 144] 53 . = Missing Data 21 1 = By announcement 8 2 = By mutual agreement 104 3 = By surprise attack 897. CONCLUSION OF WAR [Follows Otterbein 1970: 35, 144] 53 . = Missing Data 61 1 = By negotiation 52 2 = By simply stopping 20 3 = War is not ended but is continual 898. PEACE CEREMONY 104 . = Missing Data 61 1 = Present 21 2 = Absent 899. MILITARY EXPECTATIONS I: Subjugation, Tribute, Land, Trophies [Follows Naroll 1966, with modifications by Otterbein 1970] 19 . = Missing Data 99 1 = High, with any one of the following present: * Subjugation of territory or people (909) * Collection of tribute (910) * Land - fields, hunting/fishing territory, pastures (911) * Trophies and honors (including captives for sacrifice) (913) 68 2 = Low, absence of any of the above 900. MILITARY EXPECTATIONS II: Subjugation, Tribute, Land 20 . = Missing Data 76 1 = High, with any one of the following present: * Subjugation of territory or people (909) * Collection of tribute (910) * Land - fields, hunting/fishing territory, pastures (911) 90 2 = Low, absence of any of the above 901. CASUALTY RATE [Follows Otterbein 1970: 81, 146] 107 . = Missing Data 35 1 = High (1/3rd or more of combatants) 44 2 = Low "This has turned out to be a difficult variable to code; information does not exist in most cases." Wheeler 1974:270 902. LEADERSHIP DURING BATTLE [Modified from Otterbein 1970: 23-28, 144] 44 . = Missing Data 62 1 = An official who could back up his decision by force 67 2 = An informal leader whom people obeyed because of respect, but who had no means to force warriors to obey 13 3 = Everyone is on his own "When I drew up this variable, I neglected to allow for those cases where a leader has an official position -- appointed war chief, hereditary war chief -- and is very aware of the honor and respect of this office but still has no means to force followers to obey. His formality may be hollow if people choose to disregard his direction." Wheeler 1974:272 903. PRESTIGE ASSOCIATED WITH BEING A SOLDIER OR WARRIOR 35 . = Missing Data 61 1 = A great deal; important for every male 64 2 = some, not necessary to be a warrior to have influence in the community 26 3 = No special consideration, respect, or distinctions for a man who fights 904. COWARDICE: DEFINED AS 128 . = Missing Data 27 1 = Refusing to fight 29 2 = Leaving companions 2 3 = Running away "This variable is a failure, but for an interesting reason. With very few exceptions, even including professionally trained ethnographers, observers simply do not state what action brings down an accusation of cowardice. Cowardice is often mentioned, but not what it is seen to be." Wheeler 1974: 273. 905. REWARDS (Special gifts, praises, or ceremonies, not including ritual purification for a man who has killed an enemy in battle or otherwise shown skill in war) 77 . = Missing Data 68 1 = Yes, usually or always 16 2 = Sometimes 25 3 = Rarely or never "This variable augments variable [903]" Wheeler 1974:273 906. DID MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY EXPECT VIOLENCE TO SOLVE THEIR PROBLEMS? 57 . = Missing Data 71 1 = Yes 58 2 = No "My operationalization of this variable breaks all the methodological rules and consequently is vulnerable to attack... the coder has used his assessment of the material overall.... I think the variable is enormously important, and eventually I hope to build some rigor ... into it." Wheeler 1974:274-5. 907. VALUE OF WAR: VIOLENCE/WAR AGAINST NON-MEMBERS OF THE GROUP 40 . = Missing Data 72 1 = Enjoyed and considered to have high value 51 2 = Considered to be a necessary evil 23 3 = Consistently avoided, denounced, not engaged in "This variable complements but does not duplicate, or resolve, variable [906].... Clumsy as this variable may seem, it was quite easy to code, largely due to clear observation by the ethnographer as to the value of war. The evidence may be comments by the observer, texts or poems and songs, or statements by the actors." Wheeler 1974: 275 908. MILITARY SUCCESS: IS POLITICAL COMMUNITY/CULTURAL UNIT WINNING OR LOSING IN THE LONG RUN [Modified from Otterbein 1970 to include population as well as territory] 14 . = Missing Data 42 1 = Yes -- its boundaries/population are expanding 63 2 = No change -- boundaries/population stationary (the population is able to replace those lost in war) 8 3 = Breaking even -- what it loses in territory it takes from others 59 4 = No -- its boundaries/population are shrinking 909. SUBJUGATION OF TERRITORY OR PEOPLE 18 . = Missing Data 35 1 = Present 133 2 = Absent or not mentioned 910. COLLECTION OF TRIBUTE 18 . = Missing Data 18 1 = Present 150 2 = Absent or not mentioned 911. ACQUISITION OF LAND: FIELDS, HUNTING/FISHING TERRITORIES, PASTURES 18 . = Missing Data 50 1 = Present 118 2 = Absent or not mentioned 912. PLUNDER (INCLUDING CAPTIVES FOR SLAVES, HOSTAGES, ADOPTION) 18 . = Missing Data 104 1 = Present 64 2 = Absent or not mentioned 913. TROPHIES AND HONORS (INCLUDING CAPTIVES FOR SACRIFICE) 18 . = Missing Data 49 1 = Present 119 2 = Absent or not mentioned 914. REVENGE 17 . = Missing Data 111 1 = Present 58 2 = Absent or not mentioned 915. DEFENSE 18 . = Missing Data 97 1 = Present 71 2 = Absent or not mentioned "The coding of defense was generally difficult because so few authors specifically mentioned it. Following the rule [of coding no mentions as absences], I marked it as absent, I simply do not know where it was truly absent and where the ethnographer assumed that any ninny would know that it [must] exist. Otterbein (1970) also had difficulty coding this attribute because of such an assumption. Therefore, I do not consider my quantitative results on defense to be reliable. Otterbein made one useful distinction that I could not implement satisfactorily. He coded the military expectations in order of importance -- first, second, third. There were too many cases where I could not make such a judgment, even if the data on expectations per se were good." Wheeler 1974:270. 916. AGGRESSIVE DEFENSE (PRE-EMPTIVE ATTACK IF ENEMY THOUGHT ABOUT TO ATTACK) 19 . = Missing Data 13 1 = Present 154 2 = Absent or not mentioned