POLITICAL DECISION MAKING AND CONFLICT Marc Ross, 1983. Political Decision Making and Conflict: Additional Cross-Cultural Codes and Scales. ETHNOLOGY 22: 169-192. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. Ross selected the even numbered societies in the standard sample to code, and numbered them 1 to 93. If data were insufficient to code, he substituted the previous or next society depending on whether their number was even or odd in the list. If the first substitute was inadequate, a second substitute (the opposite adjacent society) was tried. He found 33 cases with insufficient data to code: 10, 14, 15, 24, 32, 38, 39, 44, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 66, 67, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 86, 88, 120, 126, 146, 152, 154, 155, 160, 170, 171, 178, 182. He needed 26 odd-numbered substitutions of adjacent societies, but had to drop three cases with no adequate second substitute, for a total coded sample of 90. There are 63 societies remaining to code for his variables. STDS30.DAT Variables 756-797 756. Political Role Differentiation: Full Time Specialists and their Differentiation from Others in the Society 96 . = Missing data 18 1 = Highly differentiated by wealth, special titles or life style 10 2 = Moderately differentiated 11 3 = Somewhat wealthier but share much of life style by age, gender 7 4 = Same life style, may be older and have somewhat more prestige 18 5 = Few exist but leadership roles present, wealthier than others 15 6 = Few exist but leadership roles present, same life style (as #4) 11 7 = None exist, no permanent leadership roles 757. Political and Religious Differentiation 103 . = Missing data 23 1 = Consider overlap between political and religious leaders 30 2 = Some overlap 30 3 = Distinct 758. Local Community Leadership Selection: Basis 96 . = Missing data 21 1 = Kinship; highly constrained 25 2 = Kinship; broad choice within group 31 3 = Non-hereditary, personal characteristics involved 13 4 = Informal, shifts across situations 759. Perceptions of Political Leaders' Power as seen by Society 96 . = Missing data 24 1 = Very powerful 29 2 = Somewhat powerful, often variable across leaders, situations 37 3 = Limited 760. Perceptions of Political Leaders' Benevolence as seen by Society 120 . = Missing data 16 1 = Capricious and arbitrary, power used to further own interests 13 2 = Neither particularly malevolent nor benevolent in use of power 37 3 = Basically benevolent, working in interest of entire community 761. Checks on Leaders' Power 100 . = Missing data 5 1 = Few, or those which exist not invoked very often 24 2 = Checks exist which seem to make leaders sensitive to populace 38 3 = Leaders carefully secure substantial support before taking action 19 4 = No leaders act independently lest their community backing lost 762. Removal of Leaders who are incompetent or disliked 109 . = Missing data 11 1 = No way other than rebellion or popular uprisings 18 2 = Institutionalized means invoked occasionally, possibly by elites 30 3 = Not removed in formal manner but lose influence and are ignored 18 4 = No formal leadership, loss of power when support diminishes 763. Leaders' Exercise of Authority 99 . = Missing data 24 1 = Frequently act independently and make authoritative decisions 26 2 = Make relatively few decisions on own without consultation 37 3 = Use persuasion to help organized and structure group action 764. Decision Making Bodies: How most decisions are made 98 . = Missing data 23 1 = Individual(s), perhaps with advice of few advisors 16 2 = Individual(s), working with an elite council 14 3 = Individual(s), working with a broad based council 19 4 = Broad based community council 16 5 = Few explicit decisions, some made by community at large 765. Political Participation: Range of Community Decision Making, or extent to which community control is exercised over different areas of life through collective decision making, which may be of a formal or informal nature. 98 . = Missing data 26 1 = Collective decisions impinge on many aspects of people's lives 18 2 = Collective decisions impinge on a moderate number of areas 25 3 = Collective decisions impinge on few aspects of people's lives 19 4 = Minimal collective decisions which impinge on people's lives 766. Political Participation: Extensivity of Adult Participation in Areas where collective Decision Making present. 102 . = Missing data 13 1 = Widespread: decision making forums open to all adults and involvement is relatively great 31 2 = High or some: widespread for some groups, but exclusion of others on the basis of gender, age, or kinship status 24 3 = Moderate: some consultation present but low input from community 16 4 = Low or non-existent: Leaders make most decisions and involvement of average person highly limited or absent 767. Conflict (Social or Political) in the Local Community 96 . = Missing data 4 1 = Endemic: a reality of daily existence (e.g., physical violence, feuding, bitter factionalism) 20 2 = High: Conflict present but not a pervasive aspect of daily life 46 3 = Moderate: Disagreements and differences do not result in high violence or severe disruption 20 4 = Mild or rare 768. Conflict between Communities of the Same Society 97 . = Missing data 25 1 = Endemic: High physical violence, feuding, and/or raiding occur regularly 23 2 = Moderately High, often involving physical violence 21 3 = Moderate: Disputes may occur regularly but tendency to manage them in a more or less peaceful manner 20 4 = Mild or rare 769. Conflict Management in Local Community: Dominant Mode 98 . = Missing data 31 1 = Conflicting parties encouraged to find a solution on their own 27 2 = Conflicting parties easily draw new parties in but pressures for resolving disputes using informal mechanisms 30 3 = Authorities often get involved and work to achieve a settlement 770. Resort to Physical Force by Disputants in settling disputes, Exclusive of Police or institutionalized force, 96 . = Missing data 34 1 = Often used 32 2 = Sometimes used 24 3 = Rarely or never used 771. Mediation/Negotiation/Arbitration: Third parties in disputes, unable to impose a binding decision, but may facilitate settlement 98 . = Missing data 57 1 = Often used (to settle disputes) 19 2 = Sometimes used 12 3 = Rarely or never used 772. Litigation: Use of third parties offering binding decisions, with or without formal court systems 97 . = Missing data 27 1 = Frequent involvement in litigation by society members 21 2 = Occasional involvement 41 3 = Rare or non-involvement 773. Internal Warfare (Between communities of same society) 101 . = Missing data 31 1 = Frequent, occurring at least yearly 14 2 = Common, at least every five years 10 3 = Occasional, at least every generation 30 4 = Rare or never 774. External Warfare (with other societies) 102 . = Missing data 45 1 = Frequent, occurring at least yearly 13 2 = Common, at least every five years 6 3 = Occasional, at least every generation 20 4 = Rare or never 775. Compliance of Individuals with Community Norms and Decisions 100 . = Missing data 43 1 = High 31 2 = Moderate 12 3 = Highly Variable 776. Formal Sanctions and Enforcement for Community Decisions 96 . = Missing data 23 1 = Great sanctioning power available 32 2 = Some 35 3 = Little or none 777. Enforcement Specialists (e.g., Police, Tax Collectors) 97 . = Missing data 29 1 = Present 21 2 = Not specialized but done by leaders who do other things as well 39 3 = Absent, or carried out by social pressure of wider community 778. Loyalty to the Local Community 103 . = Missing data 30 1 = Especially high 33 2 = High 14 3 = Moderate 6 4 = Low 779. Loyalty to the Wider Society (in some cases indistinguishable from the local community) 102 . = Missing data 11 1 = Especially high -- uniformly high across groups 16 2 = High for the most part across groups in the society 33 3 = Moderate -- some noticeable variation across groups in society 24 4 = Low -- not terribly salient or rarely important as a concern 780. Hostility toward other Societies 112 . = Missing data 28 1 = Extensive: bitter feelings toward almost all outsiders 18 2 = High: bitter feelings toward outsiders, but not always 17 3 = Moderate: sometimes bitter feelings, but much differentiation 11 4 = Low: little hostility toward outsiders 781. Acceptability of Violence toward Members of the local Community 100 . = Missing data 1 = Valued 7 2 = Acceptable 18 3 = Tolerated 61 4 = Disapproved 782. Acceptability of Violence toward Members of the Same Society, but outside the Local Community 109 . = Missing data 12 1 = Valued 28 2 = Acceptable 10 3 = Tolerated 27 4 = Disapproved 783. Acceptability of Violence toward people in Other Societies 122 . = Missing data 39 1 = Valued 16 2 = Acceptable 3 3 = Tolerated 6 4 = Disapproved 784. Taxation Paid to Community (e.g., in agricultural produce, labor, finished goods) 101 . = Missing data 31 1 = Regular and non-negligible taxes to community 20 2 = Only in special situations or Modest level 34 3 = None 785. Local Political Fission of Dissatisfied Persons 122 . = Missing data 30 1 = Often move to another community following disputes 20 2 = Sometimes move to another community following disputes 14 3 = Rarely or never move to another community following disputes 786. Adult Mobility 107 . = Missing data 18 1 = Adults generally attached to particular communities throughout their lives, especially after marriage 22 2 = Individuals occasionally move to new communities as adults 39 3 = Movement between communities is quite common for adults 787. Contact with Other Societies 99 . = Missing data 45 1 = Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. 28 2 = Occasional but not often 14 3 = Rare or never 788. Cross-Cutting Ties: extent to which individuals living in different communities of the same society linked together in politically relevant ways 97 . = Missing data 34 1 = No politically relevant links, formal organizations, or strong informal obligations which extend beyond the local community 30 2 = Some politically relevant ties, but wider society divided into some discrete groups not linked through cross-cutting ties 25 3 = Cross-cutting ties link individuals throughout the society, cutting across territorial groups in one or more ways 789. Type of Cross-Cutting ties: Age Organizations (Grades, Sets) Cutting across Communities 97 . = Missing data 78 1 = Absent 5 2 = Present but not politically important 6 3 = Present and political important 790. Type of Cross-Cutting ties: Kinship Organizations cutting across Communities 96 . = Missing data 23 1 = Absent 27 2 = Present but not politically important 40 3 = Present and political important 791. Type of Cross-Cutting Ties: Moieties cutting across Communities 97 . = Missing data 76 1 = Absent 8 2 = Present but not politically important 5 3 = Present and political important 792. Types of Cross-Cutting Ties: Ritual Organizations (Religious, Cult Groups) cutting across Communities 97 . = Missing data 42 1 = Absent 27 2 = Present but not politically important 20 3 = Present and political important 793. Female Participation in Public Political Arenas, Relative to Males 106 . = Missing data 8 1 = High: in some situations equal to or greater than that of men 27 2 = Significant but not as high as male involvement 19 3 = Not great but clearly some role for women in public aspects of political life 26 4 = Women generally excluded from public aspects of politics 794. Female Participation in Private Political Arenas, Relative to Males 120 . = Missing data 35 1 = High: in some situations equal to or greater than that of men 15 2 = Significant but not as high as male involvement 12 3 = Not great but clearly some role for women in private aspects of political life 4 4 = Women do not seem to get involved in political life in private arenas 795. Gender differences in Political or Quasi-Political Positions of Authority 102 . = Missing data 8 1 = Women and men eligible for some of the same positions and women commonly do so 18 2 = Women and men eligible for some of the same positions and women occasionally do so 7 3 = Women rarely, if ever, hold some of the same positions regardless of rules of eligibility 51 4 = The same political positions are not open to both women and men 796. Separate Female Organizations and Positions 117 . = Missing data 22 1 = Some associations or organizations under exclusive control of women 15 2 = No associations but some positions of authority for which only women are eligible 32 3 = No associations or positions exclusively controlled by women 797. Coder Assessment of Data Quality 96 . = Missing data 14 1 = Especially high -- judgments not difficult to make 31 2 = Good -- some missing date, that available seemed good 34 3 = Moderate but acceptable -- a good deal of inference sometimes required 11 4 = Weak for certain variables with much missing data and only the most general descriptions for some domains